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The death penalty SOURCE: WIKIPEDIA Capital punishment or the death penalty is a legal process whereby a person is put to death by the state as a punishment for a crime. The judicial decree that someone be punished in this manner is a death sentence, while the actual process of killing the person is an execution. Crimes that can result in a death penalty are known as capital crimes or capital offences. The term capital originates from the Latin capitalis, literally â€Å"regarding the head† (referring to execution by beheading). 1] Capital punishment has, in the past, been practised by most societies (one notable exception being Kievan Rus);[2] currently 58 nations actively practise it, and 97 countries have abolished it (the remainder have not used it for 10 years or allow it only in exceptional circumstances such as wartime). [3] It is a matter of active controversy in various countries and states, and positions can vary within a single political ideology or cultural region. In the European Union member states, Article 2 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union prohibits the use of capital punishment. 4] Currently, Amnesty International considers most countries abolitionist. [5] The UN General Assembly has adopted, in 2007, 2008 and 2010, non-binding resolutions calling for a global moratorium on executions, with a view to eventual abolition. [6] Although many nations have abolished capital punishment, over 60% of the world's population live in countries where executions take place, such as the People's Republic of China, India, the United States of America and Indonesia, the four most-populous countries in the world, which continue to apply the death penalty (although in India, Indonesia and in many US states it is rarely employed).Each of these four nations voted against the General Assembly resolutions. [7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15] Contents [hide] 1 History 1. 1 Ancient history 1. 2 Ancient Tang China 1. 3 Middle Ages 1. 4 Mod ern era 1. 5 Contemporary era 2 Movements towards humane execution 3 Abolitionism 4 Contemporary use 4. 1 Global distribution 4. 2 Execution for drug-related offences 4. 3 Juvenile offenders 4. 3. 1 Iran 4. 3. 2 Somalia 4. 4 Methods 5 Controversy and debate 5. 1 Human rights 5. 2 Wrongful execution 5. 3 Retribution 5. 4 International views 6 Religious views 6. 1 Buddhism 6. 2 Christianity 6. 2. 1 Roman Catholic Church 6. 2. 2 Protestants 6. . 3 Mormonism 6. 3 Hinduism 6. 4 Islam 6. 5 Judaism 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links 10. 1 Opposing 10. 2 In favour 10. 3 Religious views History Execution of criminals and political opponents has been used by nearly all societies—both to punish crime and to suppress political dissent. In most places that practise capital punishment it is reserved for murder, espionage, treason, or as part of military justice. In some countries sexual crimes, such as rape, adultery, incest and sodomy, carry the death penalty, as do religious crimes such as apostasy in Islamic nations (the formal renunciation of the state religion).In many countries that use the death penalty, drug trafficking is also a capital offence. In China, human trafficking and serious cases of corruption are punished by the death penalty. In militaries around the world courts-martial have imposed death sentences for offences such as cowardice, desertion, insubordination, and mutiny. [16] Anarchist Auguste Vaillant guillotined in France in 1894 The use of formal execution extends to the beginning of recorded history. Most historical records and various primitive tribal practices indicate that the death penalty was a part of their justice system.Communal punishment for wrongdoing generally included compensation by the wrongdoer, corporal punishment, shunning, banishment and execution. Usually, compensation and shunning were enough as a form of justice. [17] The response to crime committed by neighbouring tribes or communities included formal apology, compensation or blood feuds. A blood feud or vendetta occurs when arbitration between families or tribes fails or an arbitration system is non-existent. This form of justice was common before the emergence of an arbitration system based on state or organised religion. It may result from crime, land disputes or a code of honour. Acts of retaliation underscore the ability of the social collective to defend itself and demonstrate to enemies (as well as potential allies) that injury to property, rights, or the person will not go unpunished. â€Å"[18] However, in practice, it is often difficult to distinguish between a war of vendetta and one of conquest. Severe historical penalties include breaking wheel, boiling to death, flaying, slow slicing, disembowelment, crucifixion, impalement, crushing (including crushing by elephant), stoning, execution by burning, dismemberment, sawing, decapitation, scaphism, necklacing or blowing from a gun.The Christian Martyrs' Last Pray er, by Jean-Leon Gerome (1883). Roman Colosseum. Islam on the whole accepts capital punishment,[19] and the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad, such as Al-Mu'tadid, were often cruel in their punishments. [20] Nevertheless, mercy is considered preferable in Islam,[citation needed], and in Sharia law the victim's family can choose to spare the life of the killer, which is not uncommon. citation needed] In the One Thousand and One Nights, also known as the Arabian Nights, the fictional storyteller Sheherazade is portrayed as being the â€Å"voice of sanity and mercy†, with her philosophical position being generally opposed to punishment by death. She expresses this through several of her tales, including â€Å"The Merchant and the Jinni†, â€Å"The Fisherman and the Jinni†, â€Å"The Three Apples†, and â€Å"The Hunchback†. [21] The breaking wheel was used during the Middle Ages and was still in use into the 19th century. Ancient historyElaborations of tribal arbitration of feuds included peace settlements often done in a religious context and compensation system. Compensation was based on the principle of substitution which might include material (for example, cattle, slave) compensation, exchange of brides or grooms, or payment of the blood debt. Settlement rules could allow for animal blood to replace human blood, or transfers of property or blood money or in some case an offer of a person for execution. The person offered for execution did not have to be an original perpetrator of the crime because the system was based on tribes, not individuals.Blood feuds could be regulated at meetings, such as the Viking things. [22] Systems deriving from blood feuds may survive alongside more advanced legal systems or be given recognition by courts (for example, trial by combat). One of the more modern refinements of the blood feud is the duel. Giovanni Battista Bugatti, executioner of the Papal States between 1796 and 1865, carried out 516 exec utions (Bugatti pictured offering snuff to a condemned prisoner). Vatican City abolished its capital punishment statute in 1969. In certain parts of the world, nations in the form of ancient republics, monarchies or tribal oligarchies emerged.These nations were often united by common linguistic, religious or family ties. Moreover, expansion of these nations often occurred by conquest of neighbouring tribes or nations. Consequently, various classes of royalty, nobility, various commoners and slave emerged. Accordingly, the systems of tribal arbitration were submerged into a more unified system of justice which formalised the relation between the different â€Å"classes† rather than â€Å"tribes†. The earliest and most famous example is Code of Hammurabi which set the different punishment and compensation according to the different class/group of victims and perpetrators.The Torah (Jewish Law), also known as the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Christian Old Testa ment), lays down the death penalty for murder, kidnapping, magic, violation of the Sabbath, blasphemy, and a wide range of sexual crimes, although evidence suggests that actual executions were rare. [23] A further example comes from Ancient Greece, where the Athenian legal system was first written down by Draco in about 621 BC: the death penalty was applied for a particularly wide range of crimes, though Solon later repealed Draco's code and published new laws, retaining only Draco's homicide statutes. 24] The word draconian derives from Draco's laws. The Romans also used death penalty for a wide range of offenses. [25][26] Ancient Tang China Although many are executed in China each year in the present day, there was a time in Tang Dynasty China when the death penalty was abolished. [27] This was in the year 747, enacted by Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (r. 712–756). When abolishing the death penalty Xuanzong ordered his officials to refer to the nearest regulation by analogy when sentencing those found guilty of crimes for which the prescribed punishment was execution.Thus depending on the severity of the crime a punishment of severe scourging with the thick rod or of exile to the remote Lingnan region might take the place of capital punishment. However the death penalty was restored only 12 years later in 759 in response to the An Lushan Rebellion. [28] At this time in China only the emperor had the authority to sentence criminals to execution. Under Xuanzong capital punishment was relatively infrequent, with only 24 executions in the year 730 and 58 executions in the year 736. [27]Ling Chi – execution by slow slicing – in Beijing around 1910. The two most common forms of execution in China in the Tang period were strangulation and decapitation, which were the prescribed methods of execution for 144 and 89 offences respectively. Strangulation was the prescribed sentence for lodging an accusation against one's parents or grandparents with a ma gistrate, scheming to kidnap a person and sell them into slavery and opening a coffin while desecrating a tomb. Decapitation was the method of execution prescribed for more serious crimes such as treason and sedition.Interestingly, and despite the great discomfort involved, most Chinese during the Tang preferred strangulation to decapitation, as a result of the traditional Chinese belief that the body is a gift from the parents and that it is therefore disrespectful to one's ancestors to die without returning one's body to the grave intact. Some further forms of capital punishment were practised in Tang China, of which the first two that follow at least were extralegal. The first of these was scourging to death with the thick rod which was common throughout the Tang especially in cases of gross corruption.The second was truncation, in which the convicted person was cut in two at the waist with a fodder knife and then left to bleed to death. [29] A further form of execution called Li ng Chi (slow slicing), or death by/of a thousand cuts, was used in China from the close of the Tang dynasty (around 900) to its abolition in 1905. When a minister of the fifth grade or above received a death sentence the emperor might grant him a special dispensation allowing him to commit suicide in lieu of execution.Even when this privilege was not granted, the law required that the condemned minister be provided with food and ale by his keepers and transported to the execution ground in a cart rather than having to walk there. Nearly all executions under the Tang took place in public as a warning to the population. The heads of the executed were displayed on poles or spears. When local authorities decapitated a convicted criminal, the head was boxed and sent to the capital as proof of identity and that the execution had taken place.In Tang China, when a person was sentenced to decapitation for rebellion or sedition, punishment was also imposed on their relatives, whether or not t he relatives were guilty of participation in the crime. In such cases fathers of the convicted under 79 years of age and sons aged over 15 were strangled. Sons under 15, daughters, mothers, wives, concubines, grandfathers, grandsons, brothers and sisters were enslaved and uncles and nephews were banished to the remotest reaches of the empire. Sometimes the tombs of the family's ancestors were levelled, the ancestors' coffins were destroyed and their bones scattered. 29] Middle Ages In medieval and early modern Europe, before the development of modern prison systems, the death penalty was also used as a generalised form of punishment. During the reign of Henry VIII, as many as 72,000 people are estimated to have been executed. [30] Despite its wide use, calls for reform were not unknown. The 12th century Sephardic legal scholar, Moses Maimonides, wrote, â€Å"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent man to death. He argued that executing an accused criminal on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely â€Å"according to the judge's caprice. † Caprice of various sorts are more visible now with DNA testing, and digital computer searches and discovery requirements opening DA's files. Maimonides' concern was maintaining popular respect for law, and he saw errors of commission as much more threatening than errors of omission. [31]

Healthy: Nutrition and Correct Relax Method Essay

People do different things to stay healthy. Personally, I think that three ways to be healthy are to do exercise regularly, eat moderately and relax correctly. To begin with, doing exercise regularly is very important so as to maintain a healthy condition. If you activate your body regularly, such as doing exercise every early morning or play sport at weekend, you will become both well-built and healthier. All poisonous substances are given out. that will clear your body, strengthen your bone, tone up your muscle and so forth. Next, a balanced diet is also crucial. in modern life, people have to do lots of things, so they usually run out of energy and work up an appetite at the end of day. Therefore, they need to be supplied the foods that must be both mutritious and balanced to recover and refill energy for a new day. A diet should include high fiber, high protein, lots of vegetable, cut down on fat and keep off smoking and drinking too much. Finally, you have a correct relax method. Especially, you must sleep at least 8 hours per day and shouldn’t stay up late. You should read, sometimes, joke stories; watch comedies or tell jokes with your friends and family because smiling is a dramatic method that help healthier. To sum up , health is a priceless gift of oneself. As long as you have your health, nothing else matters. For wise people, they always know how to do stay healthy. For me, three indispensale things are to activate the body, eat scientifically and refresh wisely.

Why People Commit a Crime?

It was often asked and researched throughout the years of why people commit a crime. As the opposed question came about, theorist came out with their theories of why people commit a crime. I believe people commit crime because they are learning it from the influences in their life and because the person or persons is a very important aspect in their lives it leads to the process of why people commit a crime. This connects to Sutherland's theory of Differential Association, but while it does connect to Sutherland's theory this paper will focus on the social learning theory that Aker mentions and has further research of the subject of crime. Micro-Level Learning theory has been advanced by many theorist over the years such as the theorist Sutherland. If I were to test the theory of social learning, specifically micro-level learning theory I would examine the relationships with peers preferably intimate relationships with friends and family. Only then when viewing the intimate relationships, I would see the person learn the techniques of committing crime and what's considered in the text â€Å"definitions†. When mentioning â€Å"definitions† it's what is favorable and unfavorable toward violation of the law. Now, for the theory to be accurate I have to find things that support or amongst the search if it undermines the theory at hand. The theory had one major concern that undermines the accuracy of the theory. The theory does not give a good description of the favorable and unfavorable to crime. It was because that the description of the theory was first described by Sutherland than a few others, until it lead to Akers. There has been many theorists who tried to define the definitions more precisely. It was treated as different theories, but the main one I want to focus on is the social learning theory. Since there has been many theorist who focused for example, control theory it became difficult to find the theory that is more acceptable. Another concern that was mentioned was that the theory failed to describe the process of how crime is learned. Akers did however, did draw from psychology to get a better aspect of the behavior and the social learning process. The process comes in three steps as said by Akers. First, an individual learn beliefs that define crime as desirable or justifiable. He goes more in depth saying these beliefs lead to crime. The second process is that people engage in crime because are reinforced into that situation, meaning it could be peer pressure (a negative reinforcement) or the individual could receive a reward for participating in the crime. The last process is that people imitate the criminal behavior of others, which is the intimate relationship the individual has with them. The process of learning crime as shown through most studies which shows that associating with family and/or friends that exhibit criminal behavior, comes out more often throughout most of the studies. This was taken as a strong evidence to support the social learning theory, however, even though it had the correlation numerous researchers argued against it. The researchers argued that the correlation doesn't mean that the association with criminal family or friends cause criminal behavior in the individual. Even saying that as well there has been strong support to back up the social learning theory. It is said that the origin of the support stems from research solely based off of experiments being conducted such as surveys or field work studies. From all the information that has been researched and conducted has shown the support of the theory and also the facts that undermine the theory. If I were to make the theory more accurate I would say that an individual associating themselves with a delinquent family member influences the individual to commit or take part in criminal activities. This combined theory now becomes more accurate to the research that has been conducted by the theorists. The theory itself needs a lot more research that needs to be conducted, but with the improved version of the theory will lead to a more stronger support of the social learning theory.

IP 5A English Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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Hovey and Beard Company Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Hovey and Beard Company - Case Study Example The Hovey and Beard Company Case presents us with a job design of a painting process which demonstrates errors in the design of the job by engineers which resulted into inevitable problems at work (John, Robert and Michael, 2010). The fact that the hooks were designed to move in a continuous array in front of the painters without a method of regulating them indicates problems with job design. However it can be argued that the calculation of the time that each painter was given before the hook would fall out of reach shows that the engineers were aimed at ensuring that the job was designed well to meet the demands of the job. In this scenario, trainee painters are expected to make more errors especially with the timing of the hooks and thus decreasing their productivity. The reinforcement theory is used within the Hovey and Beard Company Case as illustrated by the training bonus that the trainee painters are given. The aim of this bonus is to enable the trainee to meet the gap in prod uctivity which would result from lack of skills and experience in the job. The job was designed in a way that the trainees were expected to be skills at the end of six months when the training bonus was withdrawn (John, Robert and Michael, 2010). The contribution of the reinforcement theory to job performance is to motivate employees to improve their performance in the job. In the Hovey and Beard Company Case, the training bonus was reduced gradually as a way of reinforcing the motivation of the painters to improve their performance so that by the end of the six months they were able to perform normally without mistakes and thus enable the efficiency of the job to be enhanced. The problems that were observed in the second month of the training in the Hovey and Beard Case can be attributed to poor reinforcement and thus less motivation by the supervisors. The job design would have been wrong leading to many of the hooks falling out of the range of the painter (John, Robert and Michae l, 2010). However, it can be argued that the engineers increased the rate at which the hooks moved because they expected the efficiency of the painters to have improved by the second month. The complaints of the painters that the hooks were too fast would also demonstrate that the supervisors expected unrealistic improvement of performance by the painters in the second month. Question 2 The performance diagnosis model is a tool that is used to define problems that result in the performance of tasks of a specific job. The diagnosis performance model aims at identifying the desired levels of employee performance in the execution of various processes of a job. Secondly, the model is important in the identification, specification and implementation of the most appropriate intervention of improving the employee performance so that the problems at the work place are solved with effectiveness (Stahl, 1997). In the Hovey and Beard Company case, some employees quit because of the high expect ations of performance which they would not cope with. The replacement of the employees with new ones caused even worse problems. This illustrates inappropriate application of the performance diagnostic model by the supervisors. The supervisors replaced the employees with new ones because they thought that it was the most appropriate intervention for the problem. Their failure in the application of the performance diagnostic tool is due to their inability to clearly identify the

The Influence of Peer Perception in Regard to Personal Development Essay - 1

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BusinessMGT Unit5 discussion - Assignment Example (â€Å"Competitive Advantage†, 2010) Smart Chips Company’s market share has been hurt by the clone microchips. Though the company specializes in developing first-of-its kind microchips, but the makers of clone microchips release microchips that are similar to the original but are sold at comparatively lower prices. To recuperate their market share, Smart Chips Company needs to redesign its product in a way that it has a competitive advantage over the cloning microchips. To bring about these drastic changes, the firm will have to determine how to incorporate the value chain activities to create value and competitive advantage. Smart Chips Company’s profit and market share depend on its efficiency of performing these activities, together with value chain support activities. The value chain support activities include: administrative infrastructure management, human resource management, technology (R&D) and  procurement. In order to develop competitive advantage, Smart Microchip Company must have resources that are superior and which cannot be replicated by the competitors. A cost analysis should be performed to assess the areas where the cost can be reduced. Company must create cost advantage either by reducing costs at each level of the value chain or by reconfiguring the entire value chain. Better marketing can also help in increasing the number of sales of the firm. Promotion and service plays an influential part in the marketing of a business. With effective marketing, Smart Chips can also use product positioning, and quality checking as means of gaining competitive advantages over clone microchips. This may lead the company towards the road to sustainable success. SWOT analysis will also be helpful to Smart Chips. It is a tool used by companies to assess their strengths and weaknesses, and opportunities and threats in the market. It is a simple way of evaluating firm’s current

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BANCO CALL CENTRE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Human Health and Environment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

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Failure of Canadian Solar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Failure of Canadian Solar - Essay Example This research aims to evaluate and present North Mountain Engagements LLP, a Hedge fund company which invests in different companies to increase their capital however the company invests in only those companies of which it could improve the earnings significantly and increase the value of the firm by twice. This is the reason the company invests and analyses the company thoroughly before it makes any investment decision. The report analyses one of the companies in the Solar PV industry, Canadian Solar which has been suffering from losses from 2006 and this report investigates whether the company would be able to improve its earnings by changing their strategies. North Mountain Engagements has a higher debt to equity ratio which is defined as total debt of the company in comparison to total equity and higher debt to equity ratio reflects higher risk. Thus, with higher risks shareholders demand higher return so; this is the reason why the North Mountain Engagements LLP requires higher profits. Canadian Solar has been known over the years as CSI meaning Canadian Solar International is suffering from losses despite of the overall demand in the industry has been growing and growing revenues of the company. Canadian Solar has reported total growth of 135.7% in five years from 2004 to 2008 with revenues of the company growing from $9.7 million to $705 million. With several opportunities in the industry, North Mountain Engagements feels that the Canadian Solar can live up to the potential and become an important firm to invest.... Canadian Solar has reported total growth of 135.7% in five years from 2004 to 2008 with revenues of the company growing from $9.7 million to $705 million. There are several reasons which have led Canadian Solar to situation where the company is showing negative net income and one of the major reasons for Canadian Solar suffering from losses is the increasing competition and this report discusses different factors that have resulted Canadian Solar to be in loss. Industry Overview The world economy has been going through recession and this recession has made an impact on major economies of the world. However, there are other factors besides recession which have influenced the profitability of Canadian Solar though the demand of solar PV industry has been showing tremendous growth since 1998 globally. In addition to this, steps and measures taken by government have been fruitful for the firms in the industry as it encouraged people to use more solar photovoltaic (PV) technology. The fol lowing graph reflects the demand of solar PV in the international market and it can be seen that the demand slope has increased considerable in the last five years or so. (Source: Mitchell, 2010) Demand has increased at a much rapid pace than previous years since 2004. The demand has been growing in the range of 21% to 27% from 1998 to 2003 however since 2004, the global demand has reported much higher growth rate in the range of 31% to 38% till 2007. Demand in 2008 reported much higher growth as it reached over 60%. The increasing demand of solar PV internationally indicates that the demand would further increase in the years to come and it is the right time for firms in the industry

History of Caloocan Essay Example for Free

History of Caloocan Essay The residents of Caloocan must have been proud of its city. Other than a thriving past, the city had somehow dramatic toss with times then. Now, it continues to set ground-breaking achievements for its people and visitors. Caloocan had its famous episode in 1896 when Filipino troops fought against Spanish tyrants and advocates. The world was stirred by it. The city’s name derivation has a story behind. It’s said to have come from the Tagalog term â€Å"lo-ok†, which means â€Å"bay†, as Caloocan is just close to the Manila Bay. Others followed another version that â€Å"lo-ok† referred to â€Å"corner† because the town was concretely located â€Å"at the corner† in early days. Historical accounts tell us that Chinese and Indians were the first settlers of Caloocan. Their features are mostly dull-colored with slim beard, flat nose and black eyes. Most dwellers in the past worked as fishermen especially those residing in Dagat-Dagatan, Navotas and Manila Bay areas. Those huge rural areas like Maysilo Estate were possessed by the Jesuits while Piedad was owned by Don Pedro de Galarraga. Cruz and Naligas Estates were possessed by the friars. The first terrain of Caloocan stretched up to the foothills of Marikina, Tala Rivers, San Francisco del Monte, Sampalok, Sta. Cruz, Tondo and Tanza. The first Catholic Church in Caloocan was erected in 1765 by the Spanish Augustinian scholars who made it to â€Å"lo-ok† in 1762, but in 1814, religious governance was assumed by the Recollects. Caloocan started to grow in 1802 that led to its becoming a municipality in 1815. The door for economic progress opened when the railroad project connecting Manila and Dagupan was fulfilled in 1892. It made business transactions quicker and brought Caloocan closer to the bustling Metro Manila. In 1896, however, the people of Caloocan with the leadership of Andres Bonifacio rebelled against the Spaniards. It resulted in numerous revolutions one after another in all provinces of the Philippines. Eventually, Spain ceded the nation in 1898, but the Americans arrived. It was another test for Caloocan to get through. Periods of reconstruction were experienced. New roads, public schools and railways were erected. Later, Caloocan had to endure three years of Japanese invasion. When Philippine Independence was proclaimed in 1946, Caloocan gained its authentic freedom after all. It’s also important to note that the galleon trade history in Caloocan contributed to its growth. The export and import of products resulted to the coming in of Mexican money. It mutually improved the economies of Manila and Acapulco. Export products generated by Caloocan businessmen were in great demand for this trade. This growth continued as years went by, and now, Caloocan is harvesting the fruits of its labor.

Review Pain Management For Neonates Health And Social Care Essay

Review Pain Management For Neonates Health And Social Care Essay Review of literature is defined as a critical summary of review on a topic of interest, often prepared to put a research problem in contest (Polit Beck,2006). The review of literature in the research report is a summary of current knowledge about a particular practice problem and includes what is known and not known about the problem. The literature is reviewed to summarize knowledge for use in practices or to provide a basis for conducting a study (Burns, 1997). This study examined the effects of Expressed Breast Milk (EBM) on behavioural response related to venepuncture in neonates. From the collected review of various associated literature and research studies, topics can be divided as follow; Section A: Studies related to pain perception of neonates. Section B: Studies related to non pharmacological pain management for neonates. Section C: Studies related to expressed breast milk on pain management. Section D: Studies related to using breast milk in other conditions. Section A: Studies Related To Pain Perception of Neonates. Brenda Clain Zeev Kain (2005) stated in a study which was conducted in a tertiary neonatal intensive care unit to assess the need for improved pain relief measures for neonates. The neurotransmitters and structures required for pain sensation as well as structures needed for long-term memory are developed adequately in the neonate and thus have the potential to affect long-term outcomes. The study indicated that the number of procedures to which each infant was exposed ranged from 0 to 53 per day. On a scale of 0 to 10, the average pain score in these infants ranged from 1.7 for a diaper change to 8.9 for endotracheal intubation. The investigators indicated also that approximately 40% of all neonates did not receive any analgesia at all during the intensive care stay. These findings point to the continuous need to educate the medical community regarding the long-term outcomes of pain management in neonates. In conclusion, the current research in neonatal pain makes it clear that agg ressive pain control in the neonate is desirable not only for the management of current pain but also for protection from pain experiences to come. Ann Victoria Myron, Denise Poirier Maguire Jane Corrigan wandel (2004) conducted a study on pain perception in the neonate at Bostons Beth Isreal Hospital. Routine neonatal circumcision is still performed in most centers without the benefit of anesthesia. Newborns were frequently not given analgesic or anesthetic agents during invasive procedures, including surgery. The researcher concluded that the neuro chemical systems now known to be associated with pain transmission and modulation are intact and functioning in newborns. Moreover, although it is unclear that a neonate subjectively experiences pain in a manner similar to older children and adults, there is evidence of physiologic and perhaps even a psychological form of stress in premature or full-term neonates in response to painful stimuli. Dodds (2003) conducted a survey on neonatal procedural pain among nursing staff in childrens hospital research centre, USA. A total of twenty one neonatal nursing staff were selected and administered a self completion questionnaire to investigate about attitude towards neonatal pain assessment, pharmacological and non pharmacological management of pain. The result showed that 48% of nurses using pain assessment tool and for pharmacological management 66% of nurses using non-nutritive sucking for pain management but other non pharmacological methods are rarely used. Ivy Rouzan (2001) did an analysis of research and clinical practice in neonatal pain management. The purpose of the trial was to review the literature on neonatal pain management with a focus on historical misconceptions, ethical issues, barriers to practice, the role of the advanced practice nurse. Health care professionals agree that neonates experience pain and in turn deserve effective treatment. Research is controversial regarding the extent of pain management necessary in relation to short-term benefits and long-term consequences. Ethical issues arise when research supporting pain management is not consistently utilized in nursing practice. Section B: Studies Related To Non-Pharmacological Pain Management For Neonates. Brenda Golianu et al (2007) conducted a study on efficacy of non-pharmacological therapies for neonatal pain management. A number of non pharmacological therapies have been investigated, including nonnutritive sucking with and without sucrose use, swaddling or facilitated tucking, kangaroo care, music therapy, and multi-sensorial stimulation. The researcher concluded that even though the efficacy of these approaches is clearly evident, they cannot provide analgesia for moderate or severe pain in the neonate, non-pharmacological therapies can be used for minor pain management in neonates. Cignacco et al (2007) reviewed thirteen randomized controlled trials to identify the efficacy of non-pharmacological interventions in the management of procedural pain in preterm and term neonates. A literature search was conducted via the MedLine, CINAHL, Cochrane Library databases and complemented by a hand search. The literature search covered the period from 1984 to 2004. Data were extracted according to pre-defined criteria by two independent reviewers and methodological quality was assessed. The selected interventions were non-nutritive sucking, music, swaddling, positioning, olfactory and multisensorial stimulation, kangaroo care and maternal touch. The researcher concluded that some of the non-pharmacological interventions such as non-nutritive sucking, swaddling and facilitated tucking had shown favourable effect on pulse rate, respiration, oxygen saturation, reduction of motor activity, and on excitation states after invasive measures. A study was conducted by Eunsook Park (2007) on pain reduction of heel stick procedure among ninety-nine healthy neonates. The purpose of this study was to find the effect of Yakson (i.e. a traditional Korean touching method) and non-nutritive sucking (NNS) on reducing the pain that neonates experience when undergoing the heel stick procedure for blood testing. The study samples were assigned into three groups: group I Yakson (n = 33), group II NNS (n = 33), and group III control group (n = 33). Intervention was provided to the Yakson and NNS groups one minute prior to heel stick till the completion of the heel stick. For the Yakson group, a researcher caressed the belly of a neonate with one hand while supporting the back with the other hand. For the NNS group, a pacifier packed with sterile gauze was put in the neonates mouth. The oxygen saturation levels in the Yakson and NNS group neonates were maintained significantly better than in the control group neonates. There was no signi ficant difference between the groups with regard to heart rate and neonatal infant pain, which was measured using Neonatal Infant Pain Scale. Findings indicated that Yakson can be used during heel stick to help neonates to maintain their oxygen saturation level following the heel stick procedure. A prospective trial was performed by Karen Corff (2006) to identify the effectiveness of facilitated tucking, a non-pharmacologic nursing intervention, as a comfort measure in modulating preterm neonates physiologic and behavioral responses to minor pain among thirty preterm neonates belonging to the age group of 25-35 weeks of gestation at Edmond. The objective of the study was that premature neonates will have less variation in heart rate, hemoglobin, oxygen saturation, shorter crying, sleep disruption times, and less fluctuation in sleep states in response to the painful stimulus of a heel-stick with facilitated tucking than without facilitated tucking. In this study, heart rate, oxygen saturation, and sleep state were recorded 12 minutes before, during, and 15 minutes after two heel-sticks, one with and one without facilitated tucking. Neonates demonstrated a lower mean heart rate six to ten minutes post-stick (p Yajai Sitthimongkol et al (2005) did a meta-analysis of the effectiveness of non-pharmacological pain management in reducing pain from heel stick blood sampling in newborns. A number of non-pharmacological pain management interventions which includes swaddling , positioning, holding and rocking, nonnutritive sucking, breast milk or breast feeding, and oral sucrose had been used to reduce pain from heel stick in preterm and full term neonates. The researcher concluded that preterm neonates who were arranged in a side-lying or supine position with flexed arms and legs close to the infants trunk demonstrated a lower mean heart rate, a shorter mean crying time, a shorter mean sleep disruption time, and fewer sleep-state changes after the heel stick procedure. Carbajal (2004) investigated the effectiveness of oral sucrose in alleviating procedural pain. The hypothesis of this study was that non-pharmacological interventions can reduce neonatal pain indirectly by reducing the total amount of noxious stimuli to which infants are exposed directly, by blocking nociceptive transduction or transmission or activation of descending inhibitory pathways or by activating attention and arousal systems that modulate pain. The researcher administered one to two milliliter of oral sucrose or 30% glucose at two minutes before a minor painful procedure in term neonates or neonates weighing more than 2500 gm. For preterm neonates weighing less than 2500gm, 0.5 ml of oral sucrose or 30% glucose and for those weighing less than 1500gm, 0.3 ml of oral sucrose or 30%glucose was administered. The researcher concluded that when newborns were given pacifier with sweet solutions had synergistic effect in alleviating minor procedural pain. Section C: Studies Related To Expressed Breast Milk On Pain Management In Neonates. Elodie Zana (2009) conducted a randomized controlled study on analgesic effect of breast milk for procedural pain among forty two preterm infants. The hypothesis of this study was that breast milk has a more powerful analgesic effect than oral sucrose to avoid procedural pain in preterm neonates. The researcher used a standardized and validated pain scale by Douleur Aigue Nouveau-ne scale (DAN scale).In this study GroupI (Breast milk) and Group II (Oral sucrose) received as analgesic product to avoid procedural pain. The study had shown that breast milk has more powerful analgesic effect than oral sucrose to alleviate procedural pain by using percentage frequency of DANs scale score. A study on heel lance in newborn during breast feeding; an evaluation of analgesic effect of this procedure among 200 healthy full term newborns. for neonatal metabolic screening. Practices such as skin to skin contact, or breastfeeding, in healthy newborn, may represent an alternative to the use of analgesic drugs. The aim of the study is to evaluate the analgesic effect of breastfeeding due to routine invasive procedures like capillary heel sticks blood sampling. Pain assessment was evaluated by DAN scale. The difference in score of pain according to the DAN scale was significant in the two groups of neonates (p = 0.0001); the median score of pain was 5.15 for controls and 2.65 for experimental group (newborns sampled during breastfeeding). The study results have shown the evidence of analgesic effect of breast feeding during heel puncture. ( Elena Uga et al ,2008). Shah, Aliwalas Shah (2006) conducted a trial on breastfeeding or supplemental breast milk to alleviate procedural pain in neonates, at Canada. A literature search was performed using MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL and abstracts from the annual meeting of the society for pediatric research. Marked heterogeneity in terms of control intervention and pain assessment measures were noted among the studies. Premature Infant Pain Profile scores were significantly different between the breastfeeding group when compared to placebo group and the group positioned in mothers arms. Neonates in the breastfeeding group had statistically significant and shows less increase in the heart rate, reduced proportion of crying time and reduced duration of crying compared to swaddled group or pacifier group. Investigator concluded that the breast milk should be used to alleviate procedural pain in neonates. Emine Efe Sevim Savafler (2005) did a study on the use of breast feeding for pain relief during neonatal immunization injections at Antalya. The objective of this study was to examine the pain relieving effect of breast feeding during immunization injections in healthy neonates. Sixty six healthy neonates returning to a clinic for their second, third or fourth month immunization with intramuscular diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis were randomized into experimental group and control group. The experimental group received breast milk before, during and after the injection. The control groups were not fed by breast milk before injection according to routine clinic procedure. To assess the pain response of the neonates during and after immunization, the investigators noted their heart rates, oxygen saturation levels and length of crying. The crying time was shorter in the experimental (breast-feeding) group than in the control group .The heart rate and oxygen saturation levels were almo st the same in both groups. The study concluded that breast feeding, maternal holding, skin-to-skin contact significantly reduced crying in infants receiving an immunization injection for diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis. Phillips, Carolin, Michael (2005) compared the analgesic effects of breastfeeding or pacifier use with maternal holding in procedural pain 96 healthy term neonates. The purpose of study was to assess the differences in outcome measures caused by the effect of breastfeeding (maternal contact).Group I received breast milk, group II were held in the bed by their mothers while giving pacifier and group III neonates were held by the research assistants in bedside chairs while giving pacifier. All the neonates underwent heel lance blood sampling by a single performer. Neonates who were received breast milk (Group I) had shorter duration of cry than mothers held babies in their bed while giving pacifier (group II) while research assistant held infants in bedside chairs (group III). The outcomes measured were crying duration, percentage of infants crying, changes in the heart rate, blood pressure and oxygen saturation. The study had shown breast milk is more analgesic than pacifier use with non-maternal holding. A study was conducted by Shendurnikar (2005) to compare the effects of breastfeeding to positioning (swaddling) in procedural pain. A total of 100 full term neonates were participated in the study. The neonates were randomized into two groups (50 neonates in each group).Infants in group one were breastfed for 15 minutes prior to heel prick. All neonates underwent heel lance procedure for clinical indication such as measurement of packed cell volume or bilirubin. The outcomes measured were behavioral (state of arousal, cry, facial expression and body movements), physiological (breathing pattern, heart rate). By using standardized pain scale composite score (non validated) between the two groups before, during and after blood collection were measured. Breast feeding group had shown effectiveness on alleviating procedural pain than swaddling group. Effect of foremilk and hind milk on simple procedural pain among sixty two healthy term neonates at Istanbul, Turkey. The neonates were randomized into three groups. Group I neonates received 2 ml of foremilk, group II hind milk and group III received sterile water. All neonates underwent heel lance blood sampling by single performer. The allocated solution was given by syringe into the babys mouth. The heel prick was performed two minutes after administration of the solution. Crying duration and heart rate changes at one, two, and three minutes were recorded from the time of the heel prick. The outcomes measured were crying time, percentage change in heart rate and Neonatal Facial Coding Score at one, two and three minutes. The study concluded that neither foremilk nor hind milk was effective in relieving procedural pain. (Uyan, 2005). Narayan, Upathayay, Aggarwal, Joshi, Paul Deorari (2004) investigated a randomized placebo controlled, double-blind trial on analgesic effect of EBM in procedural pain in term neonates. The aim of the study was to assess the effectiveness of EBM in reducing pain due to venepuncture, in term neonates, as measured by behavioural and physiological observation. This trial involved eighty one full terms up to four weeks of neonatal age, who needed venepuncture for blood investigations. Two minutes before the venepuncture, forty babies received five ml of EBM in the experimental group, while forty one babies in control group received five ml of distilled water as placebo. Two observers who are blinded to the intervention recorded the physiological and behavioural parameters. The duration of crying was significantly shorter in babies fed with EBM than in those fed with distilled water . The mean duration of crying in EBM group was shorter by 70.7 seconds. The change in heart rate and oxyge n saturation was significantly lower in the EBM group and return to baseline values sooner than in the distilled water group. Schollin (2004) stated the analgesic effect of EBM on procedural pain in neonates. Prevention, treatment and assessment of neonatal pain have been of major clinical and scientific interest in the last decades. Non-pharmacological interventions such as sweet oral solutions are successful in pain relief. The study concluded that seven percentage of lactose in expressed breast milk was sufficient to alleviate procedural pain in neonates. Upadhyay (2004) compared the effects of supplemental breast milk with sterile water in procedural pain. This was a randomized controlled trial of 87 full term neonates. The infants were randomized into two groups. Venepuncture was performed based on clinical indications. Data from 81 infants were analyzed. The primary outcome was the duration of the cry after the venepuncture. Only five easily recordable parameters of the Neonatal Facial Coding Score (out of ten) were assessed by investigator. Data on heart rate, oxygen saturation were provided as mean and standard deviation at baseline and three minutes. The mean difference and standard deviation of the difference were calculated assuming 50% correlation between baseline and subsequent findings. The study concluded that supplemental breast milk was effective in reducing pain caused by venepuncture procedure. A randomized controlled trial investigated to compare the effects of breastfeeding to positioning, sterile water and 30% glucose in procedural pain. This was a of 180 term neonates. In that Group I received breast feeding, group II positioned in mothers arms, group III received sterile water and group IV were fed 30% glucose. The interventions were started two minutes before the procedure and continued throughout the procedure. Venepuncture was performed when infants were at least 24 hours of age and had not been fed for the previous 30 minutes. The primary outcome was measured by using Douleur Aigue Nouveau-ne scale (DAN), a behavioral scale developed to rate acute pain in term and preterm neonates. The score comprised of three items namely facial expressions, limb movements, and vocal expression with values in each ranging from zero (no pain) to 10 (maximum pain). The study had shown breast feeding has effect on relieving procedural pain than positioning, sterile water and 30% gluc ose in term neonates. (Carbajal, 2003). Jatana, Dalal Wilson ( 2003) conducted study on analgesic effect of oral glucose in neonates undergoing heel punctures for collection of blood for investigations. The sample was 125 full term normal neonates with no history of birth asphyxia or underlying neurological abnormalities requiring heel punctures for collection of blood for various investigations were selected for the study. The study subjects of 125 neonates were divided into five groups of twenty five in each. One group comprised control subjects and was administered sterile water. Three groups were administered one ml of varying strengths of glucose solution i.e., 10%, 20% and 50% respectively. The last group was given one ml of EBM. Prior to heel pricks, state of arousal, baseline heart rate and transcutaneous oxygen saturation were recorded by pulse oximeter in each neonate. Increasing concentration of glucose and EBM have been found to have analgesic effect in full term neonates undergoing heel punctures for routine investigations and can probably be used to provide pain relief in other simple painful procedures. Larry Gray, Lisa Barbara (2002) investigated a randomized controlled trial to compare the effects of breastfeeding to positioning in procedural pain at University of Chicago, Illinois. A total of 30 full term neonates were included for this study. The neonates were randomized into two groups (15 neonates in each group).All neonates underwent heel lance for routine neonatal screening procedure. Mean neonatal age at procedure was 46 hours in Group I and 40 hours in Group II. The outcome of the study showed that there were significant differences in crying, grimacing and heart rate in breast feeding groups than positioning group. Thus the researcher concluded that breast feeding reduces procedural pain than positioning during blood collection procedure in neonates. Leite et al (2002) did a study on effects of breastfeeding on pain relief in full-term newborns. The sample of this randomized clinical trial study consisted of 60 full-term newborns: 31 in the experimental group and 29 in the control group. The experimental group was breastfed five minutes before, during, and for five minutes after the blood collection procedure. Neonates in the control group were held in mothers arms but not fed or given a soother. Heart rate was considered as an index of arousal. Sucking frequency was only evaluated in the experimental group. Compared with the control group, the experimental group had significantly lower scores and heart rates changes. In the experimental group sucking frequency was highest during the first five minutes of breastfeeding before the procedure. The conclusion was that breastfeeding was effective in reducing pain caused by blood collection for newborn screening. Mathi, Natarajan Rajalakshmi (2002) performed a comparative study of non pharmacological methods to reduce pain in neonates at Coloba, Mumbai. A randomized study was done to compare non pharmacological methods to reduce the pain of heel pricks in 104 stable term neonates. Rocking, massage, 20% sucrose, distilled water (DW) and Expressed Breast Milk (EBM) was used as pain reducing agents. Duration of cry and Douleur Aigue Nouveau-ne (DAN) score were used to assess pain. Physiological parameters were also recorded before and after the stimulus. At 30 seconds after the stimulus, the pain scores were lowest in the sucrose group but this was not sustained at 1, 2 and 4 minutes. At 2 and 4 minutes pain scores were lowest in the expressed breast milk and rocking groups as compared to sucrose, distilled water, and massage. The total duration of crying was also lowest in the EBM and rocking groups. Blass (2001) conducted a trial on comparison of effects of supplemental breast milk (colostrum) to water and sucrose in procedural pain with 60 full-term neonates. The neonates were between 30 55 hrs of age at the time of blood collection for routine neonatal screening using the heel lance procedure. Two ml of the allocated solution was given either by slow administration via syringe over a span of two minutes or by allowing neonates to suck a pacifier dipped in the solution every 30 seconds for two minutes. Prior to the procedure, baseline data were obtained for 60 seconds and continuous monitoring was done throughout and after the procedure during the recovery time. The outcome of the study showed that there was a reduction in the percentage of crying and grimacing times in the supplemental breast milk group during the procedure. The study had also shown that supplemental breast milk was effective than sucrose in alleviating procedural pain in full term neonates. Ricardo Carbajal, Soocromanien veerapen, Sophie Coudere, Myriam Jà ºgie Yves Ville (2001) performed randomized controlled trial on analgesic effect of breast feeding among one hundred and eighty term neonates at Poissy-Saint German hospital. The study subjects were randomized into four groups, forty five in each group. During venepuncture the group I neonates were breast fed, group II neonates were held in their mothers arms without breast feeding , group III neonates received one ml of sterile water as placebo and group IV neonates were given one ml of 30% glucose followed by pacifier. Video recordings of the procedure were assessed by two observers blinded to the purpose of the study. Pain related behaviours were evaluated with two acute pain rating scales: the Douleur Aigue Nouveau-ne scale and the Premature Infant Pain Profile scale. Analysis of the data revealed that there were significant reductions in both scores for the breast feeding and glucose plus pacifier groups compar ed with the other two groups (p A randomized controlled trial was conducted by Bucher (2000) on comparison of effects of artificial sweetener containing ten parts cyclamate and one part saccharin to glycine (sweet amino acid), expressed breast milk and sterile water among eighty full-term infants. by a nurse not involved in the study. Prior to the procedure, two ml of the allocated solution was given via syringe on the anterior part of tongue and baseline data were obtained throughout and after the procedure during the recovery time. The procedure was video taped and evaluated by two independent observers unaware of allocation. The outcomes measured were reduction of heart rate change, percentage of time crying, facial pain score (five components of NFCS) and body pain score during blood collection. Breast milk group had significant reduction in heart rate change, percentage of time crying, facial pain score and body pain score. The study had shown breast milk has effectiveness than artificial sweetener and sterile water. Okan,  Ozdil,  Bulbul,  Yapici Nuhoglu (2000) conducted study on analgesic effects of skin-to-skin contact and breastfeeding in procedural pain in healthy term neonates at Turky. A randomized, controlled trial was conducted among 107 neonates undergoing heel-lance. Neonates were randomly assigned to three groups. Group I were being breastfed with skin-to-skin contact, group II neonates being held in their mothers arms with skin-to-skin contact but no breastfeeding, and group III neonates were made to lie on the table before, during and after painful stimulus. Physiological responses to pain were measured by heart rate and oxygen saturation changes and behavioural responses were measured by duration of crying and grimacing. Heart rate, oxygen saturation changes and length of crying were significantly reduced in groups I and II compared with group III. No differences were found between group I and group II. Grimacing was less in group II than in group III. In healthy term neonat es, skin-to-skin contact with the mother and breastfeeding with skin-to-skin contact reduces both physiological and behavioural pain response. Ors (1999) compared the effects of supplemental breast milk to water and 25% sucrose in procedural pain. This was a randomized controlled trial of 102 healthy term neonates. The neonates were randomized into three groups. Group I received supplemental breast milk, group II received sterile water and group III received 25% sucrose. All neonates underwent heel lance blood sampling by a single performer. The allocated solution was given by syringe into the babys mouth over one minute. The heel prick was performed two minutes after administration of the solution. Crying duration and heart rate at three minutes were recorded from the time of the heel prick. The outcomes measured were crying time, percentage change in heart rate and recovery time for the heart rate. The supplemental breast milk had shown significant reduction in crying time, percentage change in heart rate than the other two groups. Skogsdal (1997) performed a randomized controlled trial among 120 neonates to compare the effects of no intervention to 30% oral glucose, 10% oral glucose and breast milk in procedural pain. The neonates were randomly assigned to one of the following groups (30 neonates in each group).The neonates were studied on mean and standard deviation of fifth neonatal age at the time of blood collection for their routine care using the heel lance procedure. One ml of allocated solution was given via syringe by a nurse not aware of allocation. Prior to the procedure, baseline data were obtained and continuous monitoring was done throughout and after the procedure during the recovery time. The blood collection was performed two minutes after administration of solution. The outcomes measured were heart rate change and duration of crying. The study results showed that breast milk was effective on procedural pain than the glucose solution in newborns. Section D: Studies Related To Using Breast Milk In Other Conditions. Penjvini, Shahasavari, Gazerani Abdolkavand (2009) performed a randomized study on the effectiveness of topical use of human breast milk for diaper rash in hospitalized infants at Sanandaj. The study subjects for the study were 50 newborns, which were divided into two groups. Group I received human breast milk application and group II received zinc oxide ointment. After each diaper change the affected area was cleansed with water followed by application of human breast milk or zinc oxide. Infants were assessed twice a day for three days. The diaper rash were measured by using a sterilized ruler put along the lesions in a way that 32 cm2 = large size, 22 cm2 = moderate size and less than 12 cm2 = small size. There were significant differences between human milk and zinc oxide groups. The researcher concluded that topical application of breast milk was effective treatment for diaper rash. Sergio, Alejandro Palma (2008) conducted a switch from antibiotic eye drops to instillation of mothers milk drops as a treatment of infant epiphora. The management of newborns with signs and symptoms of congenital naso lacrimal duct obstruction was switched from topical antibiotic to topical mothers milk-based regimens. The conservative management of this condition includes frequent cleansing of the lids, digital lacrimal sac massage and application of topical antibiotic drops when there was a mucopurulent discharge. This change was initiated by some others who have applied traditional therapy such as instillation of mothers milk as eye drops. This study concluded that instillation of mothers milk drops had effectiveness than antibiotic eye drops in the treatment of infant epiphora. Gulsen Vural Sezer Kizar (2006) did a case control design on umbilical cord care: comparing topical human milk, povidone iodine and dry cord care, in Urban University Hospital at Turkey. The study subjects were 150 newborns which were divided into three groups. Each group had 50 newborns. Group I received breast milk on t

Sexual Dominance In Hip Hop

Sexual Dominance In Hip Hop Take a couple days off take it off leave nothing but ya t-shirt ya panties on. Damn right imma get that thang imma put my name on it all night imma whip dat thang allstate betta put a claim on it i claim my territory, [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] In my sex room, all that I wanted! Legs in the air, witcha toes pointed! So baby welcome to my sex room! (Ludacris, Sex Room). This idea of sexual dominance, as seen in these lyrics by Ludacris is only one of the prevalent issues in the Hip-hop industry. Hip-Hop today has become one of the most popular genres of music in our society and has rapidly. Due to its enormous cross-over appeal, hip hop culture has become a potentially great unifier of diverse populations. Although created by black youth on the streets, hip hops influence has become worldwide. Approximately 75% of the rap and hip hop audience is nonblack. It has gone from the fringes, to the suburbs, and into the corporate boardrooms. Like many groundbreaking musical genres, rap has expanded popular aural territory. Bringing together sound elements from a wide range of sources and styles and relying heavily on rich Afrodiasporic music, rap musicians technological in(ter)ventions are not ends in and of themselves, they are means of cultural ends, new contexts in which priorities are shaped and expressed (______95). With such a strong following over the past two decades from the various cultures, hip-hop has contributed greatly to the growth of our culture and the views of various aspects it encompasses, such as the interpretation of gender roles and lifestyle. Gender roles are defined by ________ as a set of perceived behavioral norms associated particularly with males or females, in a given social group or system(). Through these graphic and implicit songs and images portrayed by Hip-hop artists, it has brought people of our society today to interpret the gangster lifestyle, which many of these rap songs embrace as an acceptable form of culture. Not only has this gangster culture/lifestyle become more widely accepted, but it has become a driving force in the hip-hop industry, drastically changing the way in which both males and females are being represented and beginning to present themselves to adapt to this popular culture. The success of films like Goodfellas, Scarface, The Godfather trilogy and TV series like the Sopranos document all too well Americas fascination with the gangster lifestyle. Since the introduction of hip hop in the late 1970s countless rap songs have distinguished a lifestyle of unrelenting violence, vulgarity, misogyny and crime reinforced in the showing off of weapons, expensive jewelry, and scarcely dressed women which are seen as sex objects that are to be used and discarded at will. Well known rap artist of the twenty-first century, 50 Cent shows a perfect example of the gangster lifestyle which culture has recently began to embrace in his song, I Get Money here, Im stanky rich, Ima die tryna spend this shit, Southsides up in in this bitch, Yeah I smell like the vault, I used to sell dope, I did play the block, Now I play on boats, in the south of France, Baby, St. Tropez, Get a tan? Im already black Rich? Im already that Gangsta, get a gat Hit a head in a hat Call that a riddle rap Shit, f**k the chitter chat (50 Cent). The money, weapons, dope, and materialistic objects in this quote, such as the boat all directly show the way in which modern hip-hop depicts how they think culture should be and what is necessary to gain that gangster image. This masculine gangster image has become so successful at penetrating the very core of the hip-hop community that its biggest stars have become casualties. These stars begin to blur the lines between the bad boy roles they depict in their songs and videos with reality ultimately placing themselves in trouble with the law; and worse, ending in their death just as in the cases with two popular hip hop artist/rappers Tupac Shakur and Biggie Smalls. Although everyday people may not take these bad boy ideals to the extremes that these artists do, people are greatly influenced by the more cultural aspects of the gangster lifestyle such as the clothes, jewelry, cars, and possession of women as sexual objects. The glamorization of such lifestyles, as the reinforcement o f stereotypes, and the interpretations of society have quickly began to impact American culture as it cultivates a thuggish and materialistic stance as the bona fide response to what is necessary to fit into our culture and society and along the way has produces its own set of gender roles. In every aspect of hip-hop gender roles are inescapable. The gangster life style itself is greatly based around masculinity. Beyond Beats and Rhymes, author Kevin Powell says, We live in a society where manhood is all about conquering and violenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦. And what we dont realize is that ultimately that kind of man hood ultimately kills you. As a male growing up in this hip-hop culture, the lyrics, and evocative images are telling you that to be a man you must evoke a sense of strength and power, but not everyone has that power. One way in which you can gain access is through the use of your body and your ability to present yourself physically as somebody who deserves respect, this is exa ctly what these hip-hop artist have done. Look at artists such as 50 Cent who has sculpted himself to fit this masculine idea associated with hip-hop, by creating a muscular physique, tattooing his body, and placing expensive bling around his neck. Videos expand on this idea of masculinity as they show these artists with extensive amounts of extravagant materialistic goods such as cars, houses, or boats and multitudes of submissive women in and around them. This masculine, gangster lifestyle along with the hip-hop ideals have especially shaped societies view of female gender roles through various avenues. One of the major forms which have contributed to the demoralization of female gender roles is imagery in the forms of both film and photography. From CD covers and posters to music videos and movies, women are portrayed in hip-hop as sexually dominated objects. CD covers such as Gangster Rap by Ice T, Tip Drill by Nelly, and Night at the Booty Bar by Disco D all show women in very little, to no clothing centered around the lead male artist which conveys to the viewers the sense of male dominance over these women. Even female hip-hop artist have conformed to this misogynistic and demeaning lifestyle as they too, through posters show themselves wearing very little clothing and using the sexual inference of lollipops or popsicles in order to appeal to the male gaze. Even these female rappers, such as Missy Elliot, are likely to display a fair bit of sexual preoccupation (Brummet 252). If these celebrity icons, are conforming to this misogynistic ideal how do we expect the youth of our s ociety to not conform as well? These images have quickly contributed to culturistic production of a disease much like bulimia, a cultural sickness of our time. That sickness is becoming the psyche of young women. Who they are in this culture, where they fit, what their value is, or their lack of value, because if this is the only image that they see of themselves in a pseudo-glamorous way, meaning if they look at a fashion magazine theres no girl that looks like Tamico on the block [an average black girl], but in the videos there is, she said. But they see them in this one objectified way and its hurting them. While media images might be written off as only pictures or fantasy representation, they remain a very real part of American culture, with real-life implications for viewers and consumers. As if these explicit still images are not demeaning enough, the technological advance have allowed these women to be portrayed in an even more graphic way through the multi-media form of mus ic videos. At the beginning of the music video era in the late 1950s these forms of media were used as a means of marketing to boost music sales, but today we have strayed a great deal from music videos such as the 1961 video Travelin Man by Ricky Nelson which consisted of him standing on the stage with a few intercessions of different places around the world thrown in. For the most part the gaze in this video is focused on a male figure not a women as much of these hip-hop videos today are. The women in these videos greatly outnumber the artist in these videos and through the actions, are portrayed as walking bling of these male artists, just like the chains around their necks or their fancy cars. Women, then, are offered as objects to be looked at. They are, often literally, hangers on, writhing around the male canter of the image. Think how many music videos show women reaching longingly for the male star (Brummet 252). One of the videos that that most explicitly does this is the controversi al music video produced for Nellys song Tip Drill which portrays every aspect of the gangster lifestyle and completely degrades women through explicit and erotic behaviors and actions. Nelly uses these women as hypersexualized props to fuel male fantasies and show his power and masculinity over them. This video immediately starts out by showing women in very little clothes, even some without any clothes. As it progresses you see Nelly and a few other men walking into an extravagant home with women lined up along a winding stairway as if they were women of a whore house ready to be selected, and then they all turn to the side to show their curves. Throughout the video you see Nelly and his crew throwing money at these women including at their genitalia as the women shake their asses and rub themselves or rub each other while the men watch. One can also see the misogynistic views as the rappers control the women, at times putting them into positions as if they are toys of sexual pleas ure, yet for the most part these women in the video are placing themselves in these sexual positions implying the complete control of the mans will has over these women. Unlike the still images which hint to sexual actions, for example the lollipop in relation to oral sex, these videos actually act them out in ways which are not open for interpretation. Studies have discussed and demonstrated correlational links between young peoples degree of media involvement (including the like or dislike of a particular genre) on sexual attitudes and gender schemas (Hansen Hansen, 1991; Roe, 1995; Rubin, 2002; Ward, Hansbrough, Walker, 2005) For example, teens with highly sexual media diets were shown to be more likely to engage in sexual intercourse than teens with low sexual content in their media diets. This quote solidifies the idea of how these music videos are directly contributing to the sexual demoralization of these women through the interpretation of the female identity. The identity portrayed by these women in this pseudo-reality/culture evokes the idea that all women must be skinny, curvy, wear scantily clad clothing, and act sexually forward and submissive in the presence of men as in the videos. Women in hip-hop are portrayed, in [à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦] videos, as either silent, willing strippers or complaining, troublesome meddlers. The characters that they play have such a limited role that they need to look a certain way immediately to fit their role in society. No longer do we feel that the body is a more or less disappointing given instead, the body is the outer expression of our self (Giddens 104). Although the images depicted in these videos may represent a pseudo-culture/reality young women today are taking this identity and interpreting it as a true reality, acting the same actions out in their everyday life. Hip-hop imagery screams to women that beauty is only skin deep and that they are here for no other reason than to please men sexually. Although both videos and photographs explicitly and directly show the actions and characteristics which define women in hip-hop, the most prominent form of portrayal, lyrics cannot simply be passed over. Rhetoric, language is never simply a form of expression it is a functional tool that is manipulated to achieve desired ends. Once again hip-hop brings another form, lyrics to contribute to producing the identity of what it means to be a woman in this hip-hop culture through written text. A beat, a picture, even a video, like Lil Waynes can show certain ideals through imagery, but do not have a definitive meaning without lyrics. Lyrics are what make these graphic, shameful female stereotypes definitive. The words used in hip-hop are highly rhetorical and greatly define who a rapper/hip-hop artist is. According to Read it in Brail, Itll Still be Funky by ______ its states that Rap lyrics are a critical part of a rappers identity, strongly suggesting the importance of authorship and individuality in rap music (_____95). A concrete example of these rhetorical degraging lyrics is expressed through Three 6 Mafias song, Slob on my Knob here, Slob on my nob Like corn on the cob Check in with me. And do your job Lay on the bed And give me head Dont have to ask Dont have to beg Juicy is my name Sex is my game Lets call the boys Lets run a train Squeeze on my nuts Lick on my butt The natural curly hair Please dont touch First find a mate Second find a place Third find a bag to hide the whole face Real name Grover I said Ben over (Three 6 Mafia, Slob on my Knob). From the lyrics of this song one can see the vulgar language that has become associated with women in this culture. Whoever made up the saying Sticks and stones may break my bones, but words will never hurt me, was obviously not around at the time hip-hop was produced because these words are not only hurting individuals in a verbal sense, but physical sense as well. When did so many young women, especially those from the middle and upper middle-classes begin to find pleasure in being called Bitches and Hoes instead of slapping the person referring to them in that degrading manner? Music of the past never conveyed the message that hip-hop does today; the lyrics have drastically changed and have brought the culture of our time to change with it. In the 1950s Elvis became a revolutionary, being crowned The King of Rock Roll, his hip shaking beats and smooth love lyrics helped him to capture the hearts of many especially the women. Today those smooth love lyrics have turned into words of hate, violence, sex, and drugs followed by base pounding, head rattling beats. Im sure that Elvis didnt capture the hearts of millions of women by calling them bitches, hos or whores like many of the hip-hop songs of today do. The lyrics of today have moved from the compassionate lyrics of artists such as Elvis, Tony Benet, Stevie Wonder, and Boyz II Men, to degrading sexual lyrics of artist such as Nelly, 50 Cent, Tupac, NWA, and Dr. Dre. Analyzing lyrics such as these from one of Elvis famous songs Love me Tender here, it is almost impossible to not interpret and identify the compassionate and loving meaning of his words, Love me tender, love me sweet. Never let me go. You have made my life complete. And I love you so. Love me tender love me true. All my dreams fulfill. For, my darling I love you. And I always will (Elvis Presley, Love me Tender). Even within these first two versus it shows how much Elvis cares for the person he is talking about, saying things such as never let y ou go, You make my life complete, and I will always love you. You dont see that compassion in lyrics such as these from songs like Bitches Aint Shit, by Dr. Dre here, Bitches aint shit but hoes and tricks. Lick on deez nutz and suck the dick. Gets the fuck out after youre done. And I hops in my ride to make a quick run. I used to know a bitch named Eric Wright. We used to roll around and fuck the hoes at night. Comparing these there is no doubt that times have changed and that instead of expressing the loving nature as lyrics of the past have, they degraded women to bitches and hos. There are the lyrics, which heavily feature the terms bitch and ho as standard forms of reference for women (Brummet 252). Hip-hop has directly extended its threats specifically towards women using their lyrics to objectify them as objects of sexual pleasure, violence, and disrespect. Were telling people women are bitches and hos and sluts and not worthy of respect, she said. And thats exactly how socie ty is seeing us (http://www.cnn.com/2005/SHOWBIZ/Music/03/03/hip.hop/index.html). This young woman here understands the idea that these lyrics are actually talking about her and all the other women that listen to these hip-hop songs, not some made up person or just the girls in the videos, like other girls believe. Its funny when I hear women when these rappers are calling women; you know bitches and hoes say theyre not talking about me. I say yo! They are talking about you. If George Bush were to get on national TV and makes a speech and started calling black people niggers, would you be like, I dont know who George Bush is talking about, but he aint talking about me (Byron Hurts, Beyond Rhythm and Beats). A cultivation of rhetorical lyrics, videos, and images have brought hip-hop to become one of the most influentially, culturally evolving forms of music/media and along the way has produced gender roles which have degraded our sociological views of women.

Dead Man Walking: The Death Penalty Essay example -- essays research p

I believe that the movie Dead Man Walking impacted my life greatly. It was a very emotional and moving movie. This was an excellent movie because it portrayed the feelings of both the families of the victims and the murder himself. It shows how much pain and suffering the families had to go through with all the sadness and hatred against Matthew Poncelant. The movie also showed how that the families' hatred did not go away after Matthew was executed. The greatest emotional part of the movie was when Matthew confessed that he did kill the teenagers and that he was truly sorry. From there, he was able to at least die with dignity and also he asked the parents of the teenagers for their forgiveness for him. This movie also showed how the death penalty is biased on those who are poor. Matthew's partner in the crime received life in prison because he had a better lawyer while Matthew received the death penalty. As stated in appeals session in the movie, Matthew would not have been sittin g there if he had the money to buy a better lawyer. Instead he had to have a lawyer given to him by the state who had never preformed a murder trial before. I think that Susan Serandan's character was portrayed as a good Samaritan. I believe this because, like Samaritan's back in the time of Jesus, no-one likes to help a murder. Yet she came to his side and was there for him when he needed her. She carried out all his requests even though the parents of the victims' families castrated her and thou...

Marginality and Othering in Metalious’ Peyton Place Essay -- Peyton Pl

Marginality and Othering in Metalious’Peyton Place Metalious’ best known novel, Peyton Place, was a bestseller and a media phenomenon in the mid-1950s and 1960s, creating a stir because of its depictions of teenage sexuality, incest, and illegal abortion. Surprisingly, however, few close examinations of the novel’s content and style have been published by literary critics. This essay provides a discussion of a key concern in the novel: racial, ethnic, geographical, and sexual marginality. Written to challenge the inscription of white, middle class, nuclear family life as the standard by which difference should be measured, Peyton Place features several characters who inhabit the metaphorical margins of American society, including Samuel Peyton, an escaped slave and the founder of the town; Tomoas Makris, a mysteriously handsome Greek school principal with several resemblances to George Metalious; and Selena Cross, a dark-skinned, beautiful young woman describes as a â€Å"gypsy,† whose life ties in to the incest and abortion subplots within the novel. I will provide a working definition of marginality and â€Å"othering† to begin this essay, followed by a discussion of Metalious’ social status as a French Canadian in New Hampshire, a description of the characterizations of Samuel Peyton and Selena Cross, and a final word on realism, reception, and the novel’s legacy. Marginality and â€Å"othering† are terms that have a long history in literary and critical discourse of the 20th century. In cultural criticism of the last three decades, these terms have been used to describe differences in power among individuals, nations, and cultural forms. In Orientalism, for instance, Edward Said invokes this idea of marg... ...ched understanding of the novel’s legacy. The unique and provocative treatments of marginality and othering in Peyton Place illustrate conflicts and anxieties that remain unresolved in 21st century American culture. Works Cited Mussell, Kay. Fantasy and Reconciliation: Contemporary Formulas of Women’s Romance Fiction. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984. Said, Edward. Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books, 1979. Sorrell, Richard S. â€Å"A Novelist and Her Ethnicity: Grace Metalious as a Franco-American,† Historical New Hampshire, Fall 1980: 284-327. Stearns, Jane and Michael Stearns. â€Å"Peyton Place.† Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. New York: Harper, 1992: 381-383. Toth, Emily. Inside Peyton Place: The Life of Grace Metalious. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001. â€Å"Unpopular Best Seller.† Life, November 12, 1956: 104.

Importance of Slavery to the Caribbean Essay -- History Slave Slavery

Importance of Slavery to the Caribbean The significance of the role played by slaves in the history of the Caribbean cannot be overemphasized. Nearly everything that defines the Caribbean today can be traced back to the advent of Africans to the sugar plantations several centuries ago. For this reason it is impossible to ignore the issue of slavery when studying the history of the Caribbean, as we are doing in this class. Through our numerous readings on the status of slaves and their treatment by the societies in which they lived, we have learned much about the sufferings and ordeals of these people. The following is an attempt to organize my own particular feelings and reactions, which I have previously posted on-line throughout the course of the semester, to the readings on this subject and to the reactions of other students as well. Imperialism, Plantation Slavery and the Slave Trade: 16th-18th Centuries It is interesting to note the ever-increasing reliance on slaves as the transition to sugar plantations not only occurred but also proceeded to become the main form of economic activity in the Caribbean in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. When the main crop out of the Caribbean was tobacco products in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, the slave trade was non-existent. But when this crop failed, in addition to ginger, coffee and others, the inhabitants began to try sugar. This, of course, took off immediately, and the need for slaves became imperative. Thus began the true slave trade from Africa, which would forever alter the demography of the Americas. Also interesting to see are the two forms of non-exploitation society that thrived (contrary to European desire) in the Caribbean: the Maroons ... ...e, no present-day obstacle could stand in their way. The religion, skin color, music and culture of the Caribbean are all based on the difficult past of its people. Despite the rampant poverty that still plagues the region today, many of the people seem strangely content and remain optimistic. This alone speaks volumes about the strength of character these people project. It is a lesson for the rest of the world to learn from. Happiness is far more important than any material goods or trivial pursuits that we will ever pursue. It is certainly something that I will take away from this class, and I hope others do as well. Sources Beckles, Hilary and Shepherd, Verene. Caribbean Slave Society and Economy; The New Press (New York, 1991). Knight, Franklin W. The Caribbean: The Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism (2nd ed.); Oxford University Press (New York, 1990).

Prison Term Policy Recommendation Essay

The evolution of criminal justice is to reform laws for the reason for providing protection to law-abiding citizens. Individuals that have commit crime will accept punishment for said crime when prosecuted and convicted under the court of law. Prison policies implement punitive actions for certain crimes committed, which assist the courts in sentencing accordingly. Prison policies are designed to keep violent criminals incarcerated, and possibly deter future crime. Individuals convicted of certain crimes may face lengthier sentences than that of a convicted criminal which is currently serving his or her sentence for the same crime committed in a different era. The reason for the difference in sentencing is that prison policies are constantly reforming. Therefore, prison policies pertaining to individuals convicted of armed robbery are under review, like all bills to be passed there is constant prohibition. Robbery occurs when property from a person, place, or bank is taken by force. Armed robbery is using a type of weapon to take possession of something, which results as more of a serious crime than robbery. According to â€Å"Criminal Pages† (2011), â€Å"Armed robbery is the taking of said property, but with the use of a firearm or other taking of said property, but with the use of a firearm or other weapon. Just by including a weapon in a particular robbery crime, a robbery can be viewed with a lot more seriousness.† Even if the person who committed the robbery mentions a weapon or uses a fake weapon can still be charged as committing armed robbery, and the crime is considered to be a felony. The amount of time an individual can receive incarcerated solely depends on the states tolerance for said such crime as well as the ruling from the presiding judge. The bill to be voted on is to double the maximum sentence for criminals convicted of armed robbery. Before voting on the bill, it will be a good idea for legislature officials to review the stat istics of armed robbery compared to normal robbery crimes. Citizens also have the right to be informed of the possible changes and can have his or her voices be heard toward the bill. The only consideration that must be carefully reviewed and express is the prison policy would enforce only to those who commit  robbery with a weapon in intent to harm others. Murder investigations are tied to armed robbery because the robbery was out of hand, and as a result ended with the murder or injury of victim. â€Å"The preliminary investigation has revealed that just after 9:00 p.m., three armed suspects enter the home. The suspects took various properties from the home’s occupants. Simons then arrived at the home a short time later and attempted to flee after seeing the armed suspects. At least one of the suspects shot Simons as he was trying to flee† (Criminal Pages, 2011). This bill will be good for the public by giving them security, and acquiring the public trust in the criminal justice system. The bill will also allow the judicial system to attach long sentences, and keep the violent criminal offenders in prison for the duration of their sentence. Many others would vote against the bill because first time offenders should deserve a second chance if no injury or death was a result of the robbery. With arm robbery, the second change should not apply because a weapon was used and that shows the intention of using it. A second chance should be considered if the crime is conducted by a juvenile because a juvenile has time to change, and deserves help from rehabilitation services. The recommendation as a criminologist, the state legislator would prefer to not vote for the bill governing the double maximum prison sentence for convicted armed robbery. The possible reasons for not voting in favor of the bill are based on a ethical corrupt foundation by which incarcerating an individual for half if not three quarters of their life for armed robbery is not ethical because people can be reformed, and rehabilitated. For some individuals convicted of armed robbery do it for survival, a means to an end and many convicted offenders of such said crime disclose they did not intend to hurt anyone. If murder was intended, the offender can be convicted with high possibilities of receiving a double maximum sentence. The sentence will attempt to punish the convicted criminal through incarceration, counseling by teaching the convicted offender a valuable lesson, and would attempt to provide justice to the victim or victims through restorative justice. The bill would be very ineffective for the reason for increasing maximum sentence has a poor affect in deterring criminals. Butterfield (2011), â€Å"Despite the prison-construction boom of recent years, the rate at which inmates released from prison committed new crimes actually rose from 1983 to 1994, suggesting  that the increased number of criminals put behind bars has not been an effective deterrent to crime, according to a Justice Department study released today.† Convicted criminals released from prison often commit the crime again. According to â€Å"Crime in America† (2010), â€Å"Most former convicts were rearrested shortly after getting out of prison: 30% within six months, 44% within a year, 59% within two years and 67% by the end of three years† (2002 Study). Therefore, the bill to double maximum sentence for armed robbery will be ineffective and should be denied. Prison policy writing comes in a form of a bill that must be voted on by the state legislator. The bill to be voted on is the maximum sentence for armed robbery should be doubled. The proposal of the bill will provide society with an advantage of incarcerating the criminal that allegedly commit armed robbery. The incarceration of violent offenders that commit armed robbery will provide some closure to the victims. Doubling maximum sentence for convicted criminals that have committed armed robbery is considered inhumane by the criminal society, especially for first time offenses. The bill will be considered an ineffective deterrent because repetitive offenders are usually sent back to incarceration. References Criminal Pages. (2011).Armed Robbery Charges. Retrieved from: http://www.criminalpages.com/criminal-records-classification/felony/felony-charges/armed-robbery-charges/ Criminal Pages. (2011). Armed robbery leads to homicide. Retrieved from: http://www.abc2news.com/dpp/news/crime_checker/baltimore_city_crime/armed-robbery-leads-to-homicide/ Butterfield, F. (2011). Prison Boom Has Not Deterred Crime, Report Suggests. Retrieved from: http://threehegemons.tripod.com/threehegemonsblog/id30.html/ Crime in America. (2010). Percent of Released Prisoners Returning to Incarceration. Retrieved from: http://crimeinamerica.net/2010/09/29/percent-of-released-prisoners-returning-to-incarceration/